A related material, cellulose acetate, is used to make cigarette filters, which are a notable litter issue. Although current levels of microplastic particles in freshwater are considered too low to be harmful18,30,34, they can have deleterious effects at higher levels. This term is often very ambiguous and used interchangeably with bioplastics when the two are chemically quite different. Clean. Besides recycling, behavioural changes towards using less plastic, and the strict usage of renewable energy for polymer and plastic production, remain essential strategies to mitigate plastic waste and carbon emissions. The industrial production of plastics has brought enormous ease to human life. The overall production of non-fibre plastics since 1950 has been dominated by PE (36.4%), polypropylene (PP; 21%) and polyvinylchloride (PVC; 12%), while the fibres market largely comprises polyethylene terephthalate (PET; 70%). Biodegradable plastics, on the other hand, refer to petroleum-based plastics that are combined with an additive that makes them break down quickly. Bioplastics that don't biodegrade that quickly are called "durable," and some bioplastics made from biomass that cannot easily be broken down by microorganisms are considered non-biodegradable. They may or may not be biodegradable and some are only partially biobased, that is they contain both renewable and fossil-fuel-based carbon. However, its complex phenolic structure has sparked interest in upgrading lignin into polymer additives, polymer grafts or monomers for specialty plastics143,164. Environ. 36, 13781385 (2015). European Commission. Mutation in a tesB-like hydroxyacyl-coenzyme A-specific thioesterase gene causes hyperproduction of extracellular polyhydroxyalkanoates by Alcanivorax borkumensis SK2. Environ. Only 10% of CH4 produced in landfills was estimated to be captured globally in 2006, which is an approach that offers potential for energy recovery while benefitting the climate and public health227,228. Energy Fuels 13, 188196 (1999). This problem is now being addressed by UN member states through the 2019 Basel Conventions Plastic Waste Amendments, which aim to regulate global plastic waste trade27. NatureWorks Announces Key Milestones for Global Manufacturing Expansion with New 75kTa Facility for Producing Ingeo Biopolymer in Thailand (Business Wire, 2021). Sci. 16, 20200030 (2020). Hong, M. & Chen, E. Y. X. Sci. Recycling of bioplastics: routes and benefits. In the USA, the current administration has committed to more environment-focused and climate-focused policies. Nikodinovic-Runic, J. et al. Improving Plastics Management: Trends, Policy Responses, and the Role of International Co-operation and Trade. Food waste as a valuable resource for the production of chemicals, materials and fuels. Sci. Biorefin. Preparation of high molecular weight polyanhydrides. Degrad. The most commonly observed labels on plastic products are the plastic resin identification codes (examples from ASTM D7611/D7611M-20 in panel a of the figure), which identify the polymer but provide no information on the recyclability. The corresponding materials properties as well as the commercial volumes of bioplastic production are summarized in Supplementary Tables 1 and 2, respectively. 3, 6070 (2020). Concise overview of properties and recycling options for popular bioplastics, such as polylactic acid, polyhydroxyalkanoates, bioPET and bioPE. Yoshida, S. et al. Given the trade-offs, the implementation of bioplastics faces several challenges (Box1). Prog. Conserv. Chem. Jan Kole, P., Lhr, A. J., Van Belleghem, F. G. A. J. The UN named plastic pollution a priority during its 73rd Session (20182019). 36, 17881802 (2007). Franklin Associates. Domb, A. J. In this Review, we assess the advantages and challenges of bioplastics in transitioning towards a circular economy. Rev. World Health Organization (WHO). However, the relatively short repeat unit and the methyl side group make PLA brittle and slow to crystallize. In this Review, we largely focus on bioplastics made from polymers derived from renewable resources. Adv. These monomers can be polymerized into several durable drop-in polymers (such as bioPE and bioPET), new durable polymers (such as polyethylene furanoate (PEF))6,92,127,128,144, as well as biodegradable ones (such as polylactic acid (PLA) and bio-polybutylene succinate (bioPBS))105,152. Tullo, A. H. Will the Biodegradable Plastic PHA Finally Deliver? The Pew Charitable Trusts and SYSTEMIQ. Lamberti, F. M., Romn-Ramrez, L. A. Energy 32, 12431257 (2007). Rev. Polysaccharides can be extracted from plant biomass and converted chemically into plasticized starch and cellulose-based products13,163,165. Undocumented open burning of plastic waste might add >1Gt of CO2 equivalent emissions to these numbers48. They are: 1.Bioplastics. Plastic products are depolymerized into their monomeric subunits, which can then be repolymerized through controlled polymerization mechanisms into polymers of desired quality (such as with controlled molecular weight). in Ullmanns Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry 129 (Wiley, 2016). Harmsen, P. F. H., Hackmann, M. M. & Bos, H. L. Green building blocks for bio-based plastics. What are bioplastics? Abdul Khalil, H. P. S. et al. & Liu, D. Production of 2,5-furandicarboxylic acid (FDCA) from 5-hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF): recent progress focusing on the chemical-catalytic routes. 51, 1224612253 (2017). & Wood, J. Fadeeva, Z. Introduction Biotechnol. Five misperceptions surrounding the environmental impacts of single-use plastic. Owing to the environmental pollution associated with harvesting and incinerating fossil products, crude oil is considered a non-sustainable feedstock. Closing the loop for paper-coated packaging and serviceware: now compostable and recyclable with Luminy from Total Corbion PLA. The majority of plastic-related CO2 emissions are incurred by raw material extraction (61%) and polymer production (30%), while only 9% is associated with the EOL stage, mainly incineration45,47. Introduction Plastics are a universal part of the modern economy due to their unique functional properties at low-cost. Terpenes9, which contain isoprene units, are compounds found in plant oils. Green Chem. Global Bioplastic Packaging Market 20192023. Technol. Polyanhydrides are a class of polymers whose highly hydrolytically labile anhydride bond can be exploited in materials for drug and protein release154,155,156,157,158. Frana, D. C. et al. Fleckenstein, P., Rosenboom, J.-G., Storti, G. & Morbidelli, M. Synthesis of cyclic (ethylene furanoate) oligomers via cyclodepolymerization. Aliphatic polyesters, such as PLA, PBS or PHAs, are more hydrolysable than aromatic ones. Nakajima, H., Dijkstra, P. & Loos, K. The recent developments in biobased polymers toward general and engineering applications: Polymers that are upgraded from biodegradable polymers, analogous to petroleum-derived polymers, and newly developed. Climate-driven trends in contemporary ocean productivity. "Biodegradable" implies that the decomposition happens in weeks to months. Microplastics in drinking-water. The ability to evaluate, scrutinize and compare sustainability and the environmental impact of fossil-based and bio-based materials remains essential, yet non-trivial. Adv. Explanation of life cycle assessment approaches and sensitivity analysis of (bio)plastic-related environmental impacts in different end-of-life scenarios, showing recycling to be more sustainable than landfilling and composting. Worldwide, annual production of 100% bio-based polymers is currently ~2 million tonnes2,8, with biodegradable plastic accounting for two-thirds of that amount207. Biodegradable plastic from sugar cane . Ind. CO2 generated through bioplastic incineration (blue arrow), aerobic composting or incineration of CH4 from anaerobic composting229 is a net-zero addition to the carbon cycle, as it is captured by photosynthesis into new biomass. Methods to produce succinic acid by fermenting lignocellulosic sugars are under development, and butanediol can be produced by hydrocracking starches and sugars90,105. Effect of oil palm sustainability certification on deforestation and fire in Indonesia. Nestl has committed up to $2 billion to develop food-grade recycled plastics and sustainable plastic technologies, including 100% bioPET. Environ. Utsunomia, C., Ren, Q. Kunasundari, B. Biodegradable means that an object can be biologically broken down. Lee, A. 17, 100567 (2020). image: The behaviour of small perch exposed to bioplastics in fish food changed over a period of six months. 66, 101479 (2020). Chen, C., Dai, L., Ma, L. & Guo, R. Enzymatic degradation of plant biomass and synthetic polymers. The perception that all bioplastic packaging is biodegradable is common, but incorrect. A bacterium that degrades and assimilates poly(ethylene terephthalate). Energy Environ. The prices of bioplastics and fossil-based plastics8,66,118 are compared in Table1, showing that current bioplastic premiums can be ~50% (bioPE) but also 34 times more expensive (PHAs) than established fossil plastics. Schmidt, C., Krauth, T. & Wagner, S. Export of plastic debris by rivers into the sea. Total Corbion PLA. Catarino, A. I., Macchia, V., Sanderson, W. G., Thompson, R. C. & Henry, T. B. J. Polym. USA 115, 121126 (2018). Energy Res. Yang, J., Yang, Y., Wu, W., Zhao, J. Adv. Woodruff, M. A. Polymers 9, 523 (2017). Technol. 84, 227237 (2009). Gene-editing technologies such as CRISPRCas9 can potentially be used to guide the type and properties of PHA that is produced; these tools can also tune metabolic pathways to increase cell size, increase PHA yields and increase resilience to stress to improve production efficiencies, which can consequently decrease production cost and enable the application of PHAs in a wider range of commercial products121,122. 38, 34843504 (2009). 1). However, the traditional life of most plastic materials is linear (Fig. J. Environ. The Break Free from Plastic Pollution Act was introduced in the House of Representatives in February 2020. Franklin Associates https://napcor.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/05/Final-Revised-Virgin-PET-Resin-LCA.pdf (2020). Limonene, a terpene obtained from lemon peel, can be used to make bio-based polycarbonates (bioPCs) that are free of bisphenol A by reacting limonene epoxide with CO2 (refs83,84). The German certification body DIN CERTCO has established new labels to certify the recyclability of a plastic product based on the polymer and existing infrastructure to recycle the latter (panel d of the figure). Vogel, B. M. & Mallapragada, S. K. Synthesis of novel biodegradable polyanhydrides containing aromatic and glycol functionality for tailoring of hydrophilicity in controlled drug delivery devices. River plastic emissions to the worlds oceans. Bioplastics based on natural materials like starch, or synthetic biomaterials like polylactic acid, have exhibited inadequate durability, biocompatibility, and/or biodegradability in most cases.. Sabirova, J. S. et al. Bioplastics and biodegradable plastics by Chris Woodford. 34, 506519 (2016). Kleme, J. J., Fan, Y., Van, Tan, R. R. & Jiang, P. Minimising the present and future plastic waste, energy and environmental footprints related to COVID-19. Grignard, B., Gennen, S., Jrme, C., Kleij, A. W. & Detrembleur, C. Advances in the use of CO2 as a renewable feedstock for the synthesis of polymers. Environ. Their desirable mechanical properties and good O2 and CO2 barrier properties indicate that PHAs would be suitable replacements for bulk packaging materials such as PE and PP115,118,119. Biodegradable - Bioplastics that are considered "biodegradable" can be broken down by microorganisms such as bacteria, fungi and algae into water, carbon dioxide, methane, biomass and inorganic compounds. However, using materials science, it's possible to engineer bioplastic packaging that maintains its biodegradability. Around two million tonnes of plastic debris leach into rivers each year, occurring in both developing countries, which lack adequate collection and waste treatment infrastructures, and industrialized nations, such as China and the USA22,23,24. 72, 726731 (2006). Editorial: China is putting the U.S. to shame in the fight against plastic trash (Los Angeles Times, 2020). Recycl. In solvolysis, polymers with cleavable groups along their backbone, such as ester bonds in PET, PEF and PLA, can be subjected to solvent-based depolymerization processes such as hydrolysis, glycolysis or methanolysis56,181,196,197. Market Report (Technavio, 2019). Compostable plastics - a subset of biodegradable ones - typically decompose in industrial composting facilities, and first need to be collected. Using more descriptive terminologies can be helpful: for example, bio-based durable polyethylene (bioPE) is made from biomass derivatives but is not readily biodegradable, polybutylene succinate (PBS) is typically fossil-based yet biodegradable (that is, easily hydrolysable), and polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs) are biodegradable and bio-based, at least when the synthesizing microorganisms are grown on biomass. Panels f, h and kn copyright TV AUSTRIA Group. Circular economy principles and technologies, therefore, need to be enacted at every step along the plastic supply chain to minimize environmental impact and plastic waste. Lingle, R. Bioplastics boost packaging film and paper barrier and performance. https://cen.acs.org/business/biobased-chemicals/biodegradable-plastic-PHA-finally-deliver/99/i22 (Chemical & Engineering News, 2021). For applications in which durability is crucial, the use of bio-based polymers is underexplored. Commun. Last updated: March 8, 2023. New perspectives in plastic biodegradation. J. Environ. Environ. Polyglycolic acid is the simplest aliphatic ester. Rosenboom, J.-G., Hohl, D. K., Fleckenstein, P., Storti, G. & Morbidelli, M. Bottle-grade polyethylene furanoate from ring-opening polymerisation of cyclic oligomers. 8, 15611 (2017). Companies are faced with balancing established material properties known to the company and consumers with various sustainability-related factors along the supply chain of a new, potentially more sustainable material (Fig. European Commission. 60, 146158 (2021). Several degradable fossil-derived polymers have found applications in the biomedical sector. Yet, all aspects must be addressed to comply with upcoming regulations, extended producer responsibility (EPR) schemes and certification rules16,187. Evaluating scenarios toward zero plastic pollution. Spierling, S. et al. Opin. All these factors have to be evaluated across the life cycle, along metrics such as climate impact, ecotoxicity and recyclability, using tools such as a life cycle assessment (LCA) to elucidate the environmental benefit over alternatives6,12,13. Test. Vegetable oils9,82 contain triglycerides with unsaturated fatty acids, which can be epoxidized to make epoxy resins. Technol. Themelis, N. J. The efficiency of anaerobic digestion can be increased by including elements such as a bioreactor landfill, in which H2O is circulated to enhance microbial activities for CH4 production227. Prod. (Wuppertal Institut, 2021). Most of the current bioplastic market is non-biodegradable which makes problem for waste management (Algieri et al. PLGA can be synthesized through polycondensation or ring-opening polymerization with various molecular weights and monomer ratios, enabling the degradation rate and mechanical stiffness to be tuned152,153. Many of these materials have an integral role in modern life and are especially important in the transportation, food, health-care and energy industries. Polymer 87, 148158 (2016). Science 358, 868870 (2017). Technology and markets day path to the future. Sci. & Zinn, M. Poly(4-hydroxybutyrate): current state and perspectives. Sajid, M., Zhao, X. Examples of countries with high recycling rates are Norway (97%, 2018)188, where an effective deposit system exists; Japan (83%, 2019), which has several EPR laws and fees in place189; and India (~90%, 2018)190, where informal collectors can make a living from returned bottles that recyclers pay for. Nevertheless, with technological advances, bioplastics have the potential to move several plastic-intensive industries towards a circular economy. Such levels would account for 1015% of the estimated global carbon budget of CO2 output to keep global warming below 2C, which is the goal stated in the UN Paris Agreement of 2015 (refs2,45,47,49,50). Fourteenth Meeting of the Conference of the Parties to the Basel Convention Meeting Documents 1123 (United Nations, 2019).
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